Toward a Theory of First Language Transfer

TRANSFER in L2  vs TRANSFER in L1

TRANSFER in COMMUNICATION INVOLVES THE USE OF THE L1 EITHER TO RECEIVE INPUT OR TO PROCESS OUTPUT.

TRANSFER IN LEARNING OCCURS WHEN THE LEARNER USES THE L1 IN AN ATTEMPT TO ABOUT L2 RULES.!!! MY DEAR FRIEND THIS PART IS REALLY IMPORTANT DO YOU REMEMBER THAT THE TIME WE WERE DEFINING A LANGUAGE TRANSFER WE SAID THAT LANGUAGE TRANSFER IS THE ROLE OF THE NATIVE LANGUAGE IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION .... BEING A TRANSFER IS NECESSARY 

TRANSFER IS 

1) a characteristics of COMMUNICATION

2)  a feature of learning

3) both communication and learning transfers are important and interrelated aspects of l2 acquisition.

where the two langauages were 

identical learning could take place through positive transfer.

different learning difficulties appeared and errors occurred resulting from negative transfer

The Role of Native Language in second language acquistion

Language Transfer: The role of native language in second language acquisition.

• It is assumed that learners rely on their first language while they are learning a second language acquisition
• Learners tend to transfer forms and meanings from their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture.
• The transfer is productive when the learner attempts to speak the language.
• The trasnfer is receptive when the learner tries to understand the language and culture as practiced by native speakers.

A contrastive analysis: of the native language and the target language was conducted in order to determine similarities and differences in the languages.

MLA In-Text Citations: The Basics

Basic in-text citation rules

In MLA style, referring to the works of others in your text is done by using what is known asparenthetical citation. This method involves placing relevant source information in parentheses after a quote or a paraphrase.

General Guidelines

• The source information required in a parenthetical citation depends (1.) upon the source medium (e.g. Print, Web, DVD) and (2.) upon the source’s entry on the Works Cited (bibliography) page.
• Any source information that you provide in-text must correspond to the source information on the Works Cited page. More specifically, whatever signal word or phrase you provide to your readers in the text, must be the first thing that appears on the left-hand margin of the corresponding entry in the Works Cited List.

In-text citations: Author-page style

MLA format follows the author-page method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the page number(s) from which the quotation or paraphrase is taken must appear in the text, and a complete reference should appear on your Works Cited page. The author's name may appear either in the sentence itself or in parentheses following the quotation or paraphrase, but the page number(s) should always appear in the parentheses, not in the text of your sentence. For example:

Wordsworth stated that Romantic poetry was marked by a "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" (263).

Romantic poetry is characterized by the "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" (Wordsworth 263).

Wordsworth extensively explored the role of emotion in the creative process (263).

Both citations in the examples above, (263) and (Wordsworth 263), tell readers that the information in the sentence can be located on page 263 of a work by an author named Wordsworth. If readers want more information about this source, they can turn to the Works Cited page, where, under the name of Wordsworth, they would find the following information:

Wordsworth, William. Lyrical Ballads. London: Oxford UP, 1967. Print.

In-text citations for print sources with known author

For Print sources like books, magazines, scholarly journal articles, and newspapers, provide a signal word or phrase (usually the author’s last name) and a page number. If you provide the signal word/phrase in the sentence, you do not need to include it in the parenthetical citation.

Human beings have been described by Kenneth Burke as "symbol-using animals" (3).

Human beings have been described as "symbol-using animals" (Burke 3).

These examples must correspond to an entry that begins with Burke, which will be the first thing that appears on the left-hand margin of an entry in the Works Cited:

Burke, Kenneth. Language as Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method. Berkeley: U of California P, 1966. Print.

In-text citations for print sources by a corporate author

When a source has a corporate author, it is acceptable to use the name of the corporation followed by the page number for the in-text citation. You should also use abbreviations (e.g., nat'l for national) where appropriate, so as to avoid interrupting the flow of reading with overly long parenthetical citations.

In-text citations for print sources with no known author

When a source has no known author, use a shortened title of the work instead of an author name. Place the title in quotation marks if it's a short work (such as an article) or italicize it if it's a longer work (e.g. plays, books, television shows, entire Web sites) and provide a page number.

We see so many global warming hotspots in North America likely because this region has "more readily accessible climatic data and more comprehensive programs to monitor and study environmental change . . ." ("Impact of Global Warming" 6).

In this example, since the reader does not know the author of the article, an abbreviated title of the article appears in the parenthetical citation which corresponds to the full name of the article which appears first at the left-hand margin of its respective entry in the Works Cited. Thus, the writer includes the title in quotation marks as the signal phrase in the parenthetical citation in order to lead the reader directly to the source on the Works Cited page. The Works Cited entry appears as follows:

"The Impact of Global Warming in North America." Global Warming: Early Signs. 1999. Web. 23 Mar. 2009.

We'll learn how to make a Works Cited page in a bit, but right now it's important to know that parenthetical citations and Works Cited pages allow readers to know which sources you consulted in writing your essay, so that they can either verify your interpretation of the sources or use them in their own scholarly work.

Author-page citation for classic and literary works with multiple editions

Page numbers are always required, but additional citation information can help literary scholars, who may have a different edition of a classic work like Marx and Engels's The Communist Manifesto. In such cases, give the page number of your edition (making sure the edition is listed in your Works Cited page, of course) followed by a semicolon, and then the appropriate abbreviations for volume (vol.), book (bk.), part (pt.), chapter (ch.), section (sec.), or paragraph (par.). For example:

Marx and Engels described human history as marked by class struggles (79; ch. 1).

Citing authors with same last names

Sometimes more information is necessary to identify the source from which a quotation is taken. For instance, if two or more authors have the same last name, provide both authors' first initials (or even the authors' full name if different authors share initials) in your citation. For example:

Although some medical ethicists claim that cloning will lead to designer children (R. Miller 12), others note that the advantages for medical research outweigh this consideration (A. Miller 46).

Citing a work by multiple authors

For a source with three or fewer authors, list the authors' last names in the text or in the parenthetical citation:

Smith, Yang, and Moore argue that tougher gun control is not needed in the United States (76).

The authors state "Tighter gun control in the United States erodes Second Amendment rights" (Smith, Yang, and Moore 76).

For a source with more than three authors, use the work's bibliographic information as a guide for your citation. Provide the first author's last name followed by et al. or list all the last names.

Jones et al. counter Smith, Yang, and Moore's argument by noting that the current spike in gun violence in America compels law makers to adjust gun laws (4).

Or

Legal experts counter Smith, Yang, and Moore's argument by noting that the current spike in gun violence in America compels law makers to adjust gun laws (Jones et al. 4).

Or

Jones, Driscoll, Ackerson, and Bell counter Smith, Yang, and Moore's argument by noting that the current spike in gun violence in America compels law makers to adjust gun laws (4).

Citing multiple works by the same author

If you cite more than one work by a particular author, include a shortened title for the particular work from which you are quoting to distinguish it from the others. Put short titles of books in italics and short titles of articles in quotation marks.

Citing two articles by the same author:

Lightenor has argued that computers are not useful tools for small children ("Too Soon" 38), though he has acknowledged elsewhere that early exposure to computer games does lead to better small motor skill development in a child's second and third year ("Hand-Eye Development" 17).

Citing two books by the same author:

Murray states that writing is "a process" that "varies with our thinking style" (Write to Learn 6). Additionally, Murray argues that the purpose of writing is to "carry ideas and information from the mind of one person into the mind of another" (A Writer Teaches Writing 3).

Additionally, if the author's name is not mentioned in the sentence, you would format your citation with the author's name followed by a comma, followed by a shortened title of the work, followed, when appropriate, by page numbers:

Visual studies, because it is such a new discipline, may be "too easy" (Elkins, "Visual Studies" 63).

WRITING A SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ARTICLE

Scientific research articles provide a method for scientists to communicate with other scientists about the results of their research. A standard format is used for these articles, in which the author presents the research in an orderly, logical manner. This doesn't necessarily reflect the order in which you did or thought about the work.  This format is:

TITLE

1. Make your title specific enough to describe the contents of the paper, but not so technical that only specialists will understand. The title should be appropriate for the intended audience.
2. The title usually describes the subject matter of the article: Effect of Smoking on Academic Performance"
3. Sometimes a title that summarizes the results is more effective: Students Who Smoke Get Lower Grades"

AUTHORS
1. The person who did the work and wrote the paper is generally listed as the first author of a research paper.
2. For published articles, other people who made substantial contributions to the work are also listed as authors. Ask your mentor's permission before including his/her name as co-author.
ABSTRACT
1. An abstract, or summary, is published together with a research article, giving the reader a "preview" of what's to come. Such abstracts may also be published separately in bibliographical sources, such as Biologic al Abstracts. They allow other scientists to quickly scan the large scientific literature, and decide which articles they want to read in depth. The abstract should be a little less technical than the article itself; you don't want to dissuade your potent ial audience from reading your paper.
2. Your abstract should be one paragraph, of 100-250 words, which summarizes the purpose, methods, results and conclusions of the paper.
3. It is not easy to include all this information in just a few words. Start by writing a summary that includes whatever you think is important, and then gradually prune it down to size by removing unnecessary words, while still retaini ng the necessary concepts.
3. Don't use abbreviations or citations in the abstract. It should be able to stand alone without any footnotes.
INTRODUCTION
What question did you ask in your experiment? Why is it interesting? The introduction summarizes the relevant literature so that the reader will understand why you were interested in the question you asked. One to fo ur paragraphs should be enough. End with a sentence explaining the specific question you asked in this experiment.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
1. How did you answer this question? There should be enough information here to allow another scientist to repeat your experiment. Look at other papers that have been published in your field to get some idea of what is included in this section.
2. If you had a complicated protocol, it may helpful to include a diagram, table or flowchart to explain the methods you used.
3. Do not put results in this section. You may, however, include preliminary results that were used to design the main experiment that you are reporting on. ("In a preliminary study, I observed the owls for one week, and found that 73 % of their locomotor activity occurred during the night, and so I conducted all subsequent experiments between 11 pm and 6 am.")
4. Mention relevant ethical considerations. If you used human subjects, did they consent to participate. If you used animals, what measures did you take to minimize pain?
RESULTS
1. This is where you present the results you've gotten. Use graphs and tables if appropriate, but also summarize your main findings in the text. Do NOT discuss the results or speculate as to why something happened; t hat goes in th e Discussion.
2. You don't necessarily have to include all the data you've gotten during the semester. This isn't a diary.
3. Use appropriate methods of showing data. Don't try to manipulate the data to make it look like you did more than you actually did.
"The drug cured 1/3 of the infected mice, another 1/3 were not affected, and the third mouse got away."
TABLES AND GRAPHS
1. If you present your data in a table or graph, include a title describing what's in the table ("Enzyme activity at various temperatures", not "My results".) For graphs, you should also label the x and y axes.

2. Don't use a table or graph just to be "fancy". If you can summarize the information in one sentence, then a table or graph is not necessary.

DISCUSSION

1. Highlight the most significant results, but don't just repeat what you've written in the Results section. How do these results relate to the original question? Do the data support your hypothesis? Are your results consistent with what other investigators have reported? If your results were unexpected, try to explain why. Is there another way to interpret your results? What further research would be necessary to answer the questions raised by your results? How do y our results fit into the big picture?
2. End with a one-sentence summary of your conclusion, emphasizing why it is relevant.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This section is optional. You can thank those who either helped with the experiments, or made other important contributions, such as discussing the protocol, commenting on the manuscript, or buying you pizza.
REFERENCES (LITERATURE CITED)
There are several possible ways to organize this section. Here is one commonly used way:
1. In the text, cite the literature in the appropriate places:
Scarlet (1990) thought that the gene was present only in yeast, but it has since been identified in the platypus (Indigo and Mauve, 1994) and wombat (Magenta, et al., 1995).
2. In the References section list citations in alphabetical order.
Indigo, A. C., and Mauve, B. E. 1994. Queer place for qwerty: gene isolation from the platypus. Science 275, 1213-1214.
Magenta, S. T., Sepia, X., and Turquoise, U. 1995. Wombat genetics. In: Widiculous Wombats, Violet, Q., ed. New York: Columbia University Press. p 123-145.
Scarlet, S.L. 1990. Isolation of qwerty gene from S. cerevisae. Journal of Unusual Results 36, 26-31.

EDIT YOUR PAPER!!!

"In my writing, I average about ten pages a day. Unfortunately, they're all the same page." Michael Alley, The Craft of Scientific Writing

A major part of any writing assignment consists of re-writing.
Write accurately

1. Scientific writing must be accurate. Although writing instructors may tell you not to use the same word twice in a sentence, it's okay for scientific writing, which must be accurate. (A student who tried not to repeat the word "hamster" produced this confusing sentence: "When I put the hamster in a cage with the other animals, the little mammals began to play.")
2. Make sure you say what you mean.

Instead of: The rats were injected with the drug. (sounds like a syringe was filled with drug and ground-up rats and both were injected together)
Write: I injected the drug into the rat.

3. Be careful with commonly confused words:

Temperature has an effect on the reaction.
Temperature affects the reaction.

I used solutions in various concentrations. (The solutions were 5 mg/ml, 10 mg/ml, and 15 mg/ml)
I used solutions in varying concentrations. (The concentrations I used changed; sometimes they were 5 mg/ml, other times they were 15 mg/ml.)

 Less food (can't count numbers of food)
Fewer animals (can count numbers of animals)

A large amount of food (can't count them)
A large number of animals (can count them)

The erythrocytes, which are in the blood, contain hemoglobin.
The erythrocytes that are in the blood contain hemoglobin. (Wrong. This sentence implies that there are erythrocytes elsewhere that don't contain hemoglobin.)

Write clearly
1. Write at a level that's appropriate for your audience.

"Like a pigeon, something to admire as long as it isn't over your head." Anonymous

 2. Use the active voice. It's clearer and more concise than the passive voice.

 Instead of: An increased appetite was manifested by the rats and an increase in body weight was measured.
Write: The rats ate more and gained weight.

 3. Use the first person.

 Instead of: It is thought
Write: I think

 Instead of: The samples were analyzed
Write: I analyzed the samples

 4. Avoid dangling participles.

 "After incubating at 30 degrees C, we examined the petri plates." (You must've been pretty warm in there.)

FOSSILIZATION in ACQUISITON

Inter language fossilization is a phenomenon of second language acquisition in which second

language learners develop and retain a linguistic system, or interlanguage, that is self-contained and

 different from both the learner’s first language and the target language.This linguistic system has been

 variously called interlanguage, approximative system, idiosyncratic dialects, or transitional dialects.

Interlanguage

According to Corder ^[4] this temporary and changing grammatical system, interlanguage, which is 

constructed by the learner, approximates the grammatical system of the target language. In the

 

process of second language acquisition, interlanguage continually evolves into an ever-closer 

approximation of the target language, and ideally should advance gradually until it becomes equivalent,

 or nearly equivalent, to the target language. However, during the second language learning process

, an interlanguage may reach one or more temporary restricting phases when its development appears

 to be detained; A permanent cessation of progress toward the target language has been

 referred to as fossilization This linguistic phenomenon, interlanguage fossilization, can occur despite

 all reasonable attempts at learning.^[2] Fossilization includes those items, rules, and sub-systems that

 second language learners tend to retain in their interlanguage, that is, all those aspects of 

interlanguage that become entrenched and permanent, and that the majority of second language 

learners can only eliminate with considerable effort. Moreover, it has also been noticed that this

 occurs particularly in adult second language learners’ inter language systems.

Fossilization

Selinker suggests that the most important distinguishing factor related to second language acquisition is the phenomenon of fossilization.^[2] However, both his explanation that “fossilizable linguistic phenomena are linguistic items, rules, and subsystems which speakers of a particular native language will tend to keep in their interlanguage relative to a particular target language, no matter what the age of the learner or amount of explanation or instruction he receives in the target language”^[2] and his hypotheses on interlanguage fossilization are fascinating in that they contradict our basic understanding of the human capacity to learn. How is it that some learners can overcome interlanguage fossilization, even if they only constitute, according to Selinker, “a mere 5%”,^[2] while the majority of second language learners cannot, ‘no matter what the age or amount of explanation or instruction’? Or is it perhaps not that they cannot overcome fossilization, but that they will not? Does complacency set in after second language learners begin tocommunicate, as far as they are concerned, effectively enough, in the target language, and as a result does motivation to achieve native-like competence diminish?

The concept of fossilization in SLA research is so intrinsically related to interlanguage that ^[2] considers it to be a fundamental phenomenon of all SLA and not just to adult learners. Fossilization has received such wide recognition that it has been entered in the Random House Dictionary of the English Language (1987). Selinker’s concept of fossilization is similar to that of ^[1][8] and ^[9] all of whom attempted to explore the causes of fossilization in second language learners’ interlanguage.

Fossilization has attracted considerable interest among researchers and has engendered significant differences of opinion. The term, borrowed from the field of paleontology, conjures up an image of dinosaurs being enclosed in residue and becoming a set of hardened remains encased in sediment. The metaphor, as used in SLA literature, is appropriate because it refers to earlier language forms that become encased in a learner’s interlanguage and that, theoretically, cannot be changed by special attention or practice of the target language. Despite debate over the degree of permanence, fossilization is generally accepted as a fact of life in the process of SLA.

OUR BROCHURE/PUBLISHER

Good evening for everyone ; YOU KNOW THAT WE HAD A PUBLISHER EXPERIENCE with

my dear friends Esra and Hatice and I talked about it but I was not be able to load it's image and I

want you to look at our brochure. It was a good and easy activity although it took a lot of time.


           

NEUROLINGUISTICS

NEUROLINGUISTICS:  The study of the relationship between language and the brain.

Example: A huge metal rod gone through Mr.Gage's brain.

A metal rod gone through Mr.Gage's brain.

                                   

                                LANGUAGE AREAS IN THE BRAIN













Definition: The most important parts are in areas above the left ear.











Example: Several areas in the brain have been identified with linguistic skills, such as producing and understanding speech.

Broca's Area or Anterior Speech Cortex: The area that responsible for language conduction and production of speech.

Wernike's Area or Posterior Speech Cortex: The area that responsible for language processing and understanding the language(comprehension).

Example: Analyse other's sentences.

The Motor Cortex: It is an area that generally controls movement of the muscles.

Example: for moving hands,feet,jaw etc...

The Arcuate Fasciculus: It is a bundle of nerve fibers.

Example: Connection between Wernicke's and Broca's areas.

THE LOCALIZATION VIEW 

Definition: It is a specific aspects of language ability can be accorded specific locations in the brain.

Example: To suggest the brain activity involved in hearing a word, understanding it, would follow a definite pattern.

TONGUE TIPS and SLIPS

The tip of the Tongue Phenomenon: It is the failure to get to retrieve a word from memory.

Example: Speakers produced transcendental medication instead meditation.

Slip of the Tongue: It is the replacement of one word with another that can up to sth far from what we meant to say.

Example: Black boxes  but we say black bloxes or a cup of tea we say tup.

Slips of the Ear: It is an error of misperception in listening mistaking a word or phrase for a similiar - sounding word or phrase for a similiar  sounding word or phrase in speech or conversation.

Example: He hears great ape but actually the speaker said gray tape.

APHASIA

Definition: Aphasia is an impairment of language function due to localized brain damage that leads to difficulty in understanding and or producing linguistic forms.

Example: The person who suffer stroke. Those effects can range from mild to severe reduction in the ability to use language.

Broca's Aphasia: It is characterized by a substantially reduced amount of speech distorted articulation and slow.

Example: Elimination of inflections such as -ed

Wernicke's Aphasia: The type of language disorder that results in auditory comprehension.

Example: When asked to repeat the word glass he might say window or sth contiguous wşth glass.

Conduction Aphasia: Damage to the Arcuate fasciculus that cause mispronounce words but typically do not have articulation problems.

Example: Repetition of the words base and wash what the speaker hears and understands can not be transferred very succesfully.

Dichotic Listening

Definition: A behavioral technique for studying brain asymmetry in auditory processing

Example: Through one ear phone comes the syllable ga the word dog and through the other earphone at exactly the same time comes da or cat.

The Critical Period 

Definition: A limited time in which an event occur usually to result in some kind of transformation.

Example: Children learn languages most rapidly when young, and that is more difficult when they become adult.